During the late 13th and early 14th centuries, significant events occurred in the history of South India, particularly in the Deccan region. Foreign invasions led to the destruction of various kingdoms, such as the Yādavas of Devagiri, the Kākatīyas of Varangal, and the Hoyasaḷas of Dvarsamudra. Islamic rulers began to enter the South. Malik Kafur led several invasions on the Deccan, and in 1296 CE, Alauddin Khilji attacked Devagiri and looted a vast amount of wealth. Devagiri was eventually merged into the Khilji Empire. After Alauddin died in 1321 CE, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq sent his son Ulugh Khan to conquer Warangal and Jajnagar in the south. He controlled the Kākatīya, Hoyasaḷa, and Pāṇḍya kingdoms and made Devagiri his capital instead of Delhi in 1327 CE, renaming it 'Daulatabad.' However, the Tughlaq Empire was plagued by local revolts and disturbances, leading to its downfall. After this, the Vijayanagara (1336 CE) and Bahamanī (1347 CE) empires were established in the Deccan region. 

The Mahādeva temple.

Mahādeva Temple: This brief foray is important in understanding the evolution of temple architecture in Maharashtra during that period. The 14th century Mahādeva temple at Pargaon Salu-Malu was built during that period when the Islamic rule was in a process of consolidation in the Maharashtra region. Pargaon (Salu-Malu) is located in Daund taluka of Pune district, and the Bhima River flows a short distance behind the temple. There is also a temple of Tukāī, a local goddess, near the Mahādeva temple. When we visited, the goddesses were adorned in saris and jewelry, and people worshipped her as Tukai. The temple can be reached via the Pune-Solapur highway or the Wagholi-Daund state highway, 62 km from Pune. The village has ruins of ancient temples, vīragaḷas, gaddhegaḷas, samādhīs, dargāhs, and other relics. During the British era, a large-scale rebellion occurred in the village, known as 'Baṅḍāce Pargaon' (Pargaon of rebellion). 

The Mahādeva temple is an east-facing tridala (with three garbhagṛhas) type temple with a 2-meter-high fencing wall. There is a stepped path on the southern side of the fencing to enter the temple premises, and some letters are engraved on the entrance path, which is difficult to read. The temple may have stood on an adhiṣṭhāna, but it is now buried due to soil encrustation. The nandīmaṇḍapa has completely collapsed, and the original Nandī image has been replaced.

Another view of the temple.

Sabhāmaṇḍapa: There are two niches outside the sabhāmaṇḍapa on either side, and specific jālawātāyanas (gavākṣa) with leaf-shaped carvings are made on both sides of the entrance for light arrangement into the sabhāmaṇḍapa. The door of the maṇḍapa appears to have been changed at some point, as part of the original door can be seen outside the temple beside the inscriptions. Although some fragmented sculptures are still visible in front of the temple, it is clear that some portion of the original temple must have been removed. At the entrance of the sabhāmaṇḍapa, there is a sculpture of Gaṇeśa. Two kakṣāsanas with 2-2 ardhastambhas are on either side of the doorway. The interior of the sabhāmaṇḍapa measures 590cm in length and 655cm in width. Additionally, the part of raṅgaśiḷā inside the catuṣkī is 327cm long and 345cm wide. The sabhāmaṇḍapa has four main stambhas (catuṣkī) and 12 ardhasthambas, with the height of the pillars (from the stambhaśīrṣas) at 245cm.

On the left and right sides of the sabhāmaṇḍapa, there are two upagarbhagṛhas with three śākhās on their doors. Nidhī, dvārapālas, and Gaṅgā-Yamunā are engraved on the lower part of the doors, and currently, empty pedestals can be seen inside. The upagarbhagṛha on the right measures 320cm in length and 220cm in width, and the shape of the left upagarbhagṛha is likely similar. There does not seem to be any arrangement of stairs to access these upagarbhagṛhas.

The original door of the maṇḍapa (?).

fragmented sculptures.

kakṣāsana.

Sabhāmaṇḍapa

Antarāḷa and Garbhagṛha: Two empty devakoṣhṭhas are on the side of the antarāḷa, which measures 250cm in length and 275cm in width. Two columns are used as props in the facade of the antarāḷa, and the beam’s load has been weighed on them. There are also two empty devakoṣhṭhas on either side of the antarāḷa. The entrance of the main garbhagṛha has triśākhās, which is similar to the entrances of the other upagarbhagṛhas. There is an image of Gaṇeśa on the lalāṭapaṭṭa, and after this, we reach the garbhagṛha. The length and width of the garbhagṛha is 272cm, and there is a śivaliṅga in the center with a devakoṣhṭha behind it, which probably had a sculpture of Pārvatī. A large vessel is kept in the garbhagṛha to collect the abhiṣeka water. All the vitānas in the temple are of flat type.

śivaliṅga.

Temple Exterior: The Mahādeva temple lacks a distinctive carving on its exterior, but there are some engravings on the right corner of the sabhāmaṇḍapa. There are some carvings on the outer wall of the upagarbhagṛha on the right side, including a depiction of a woman portrayed as a Lajjāgaurī and a man shown tying his penis and testicles with a rope and weighing them on his shoulders. Another drawing shows a scene of a union between a woman and two men.

The śikhara of the temple is of the Bhūmīja style, with five kūṭastambhas expected to be present on top of each other. However, one of the uppermost rows of kūṭas has collapsed. The śikhara is of Pañcabhauma type, with Mūlamañjarī and śurasenaka parts visible and Āmalaka and kalaśa parts destroyed. Except for the northern part of the śikhara, the rest of the portion has fallen, and the antarāḷa has a śukanāsikā, with its southern part fallen to a great extent. Later-built symbolic śikharas are visible on the upagarbhagṛhas and sabhāmaṇḍapa, and there is an abhiṣekapātra outside the garbhagṛha on the south side of the temple to release water. At the same time, a praṇālaka is present in the south to drain the water of the garbhagṛha. A small structure on the left side of the temple, which appears to be contemporary with the Mahādeva temple, has been partially buried under the earth due to soil accumulation. This structure may be the samādhī of some great personalities.

A woman is portrayed as a Lajjāgaurī.

Erotic images.

The śikhara.

Another view of the śikhara.

Loose Sculpture: In front of the temple, there are two Gaṇeśa, a Viṣṇu, Devī images, and a rāśīcakra. The rāśīcakra is exceptional, with a maṇḍala-like structure and small sculptures of animals, birds, and humans carved on it from all sides. Additionally, a sculpture of a yogī seated in padmāsana is seen to be carved on a rock in one of the niches.

Gaṇeśa.

A rāśīcakra.

Inscription No. 1 (18.563171, 74.373536):  The Mahādeva temple has two stone slabs with inscriptions, known as 'Gadhegaḷa' (ass cursed stele) due to the markings of a donkey and woman on them. One of the inscriptions belongs to the reign of Muhammad Tughlaq, with 13 lines in total and a carving of the moon on the right and the sun on the left. The inscription ends with depicting a donkey and a woman having intercourse. However, much of the central portion of the inscription has become obscure and difficult to read due to the effects of sun, wind, rain, and human interference. Despite a careful attempt to read the inscription, some errors may occur in reading the letters engraved on rough surfaces.

Inscription’s reading

1. Swastī śrī sake 1251 vībhava
2. Sevacare śrutā ṇa māhāmu-
3. Dadevē nāyaka srava adhi-
4. Kara(rī) paragē(ṇē)sī sevalītaca
5. Madeū [dvā]pare smastiptīn
6. Somana(ra)su ekakshu(rū) guro māli
7. Telī sīpā sonārū heya aka-
8. Ra pācē pāḍhēla ***ma lade-
9. Ū ēāṅku[kru] *dharmu **de vedhe nā-
10. Yāka devācī [hī] parvaḍī pālī te-
11. Acā dharmu na pali
12. Teacīe mae ga-
13. dho

Translation: “In svastī śrī śake 1251, Vibhava samvatsara, Sultan Mahmud, who has all authority, levied (tax). He imposed this tax on Guravas (temple caretakers), Māḷīs (Gardners), Telīs (oil millers), Śimpīs (tailors), and Sonāras (goldsmiths). This system (paravaḍī) is laid by the hero-god (Muhammad bin Tughlaq), and the one following it should be considered religiously observant. Ultimately, it is cursed that if someone does not follow this system (dharma), his mother will be sexually assaulted by a donkey.”

Style of letters, writing system, language, and period: This inscription is written in the Marathi language and in Devanāgarī script, reflecting the writing style of the Yādava period. The stone slab on which it is engraved appears to have been smoothed before, and although the letters are small, they are still clear. However, some words have been miswritten, and some letters bear the nasal vowel marker of the Devanāgarī script. The inscription explicitly mentions the year as 'Svastī śrī śake 1251, Vibhava samvatsare', but the month, day, and tithi are not specified. The Indian months of Māgha, Phālgun, and Caitra fall within the Gregorian months from January to March 1329 CE, according to Pillai Jantrī.

An inscription No. 1.

A portion of the Inscription No. 1.

Inscription No. 2: Another inscription is placed to the right, standing at a height of 98 cm and a width of 30 cm. A kalaśa-like structure tops the slab, while carvings of the sun and moon are below it. Five lines of Marathi language and Devanāgarī script are engraved beneath, depicting donkey-woman conjugation at the bottom. Although the inscription is clear, some parts are uneven, and not all can be understood. This inscription seems to mention the construction of some buildings, with the last word being 'Reailen', meaning 'to construct or build.' Inscription’s reading, 

1. Praswam [?]pya mā ka * |
2. * ki va [1?] ** ēka |
3. Dhaje devācī ēka |
4. Varāwā ṭe[māvaṭe] sākābha |
5. Reailen ||

Inscription No. 2.

Concluding Remark:  From these inscriptions, it is evident that the architectural, classical, and cultural systems established during the Yādavas, Kākatīyas, Hoyasaḷas, Pāṇḍyas, and other ruling dynasties in the Deccan and other parts of South India could not be entirely broken by the Sultans who came from Delhi. These rulers had to take the local Hindu leaders and prominent local figures into confidence. Therefore, Hindus had to be given some concessions in religious and cultural fields. The Marathi language continued to be used even in the 14th-15th centuries, as evidenced by many other Marathi inscriptions in Maharashtra. Although there is no direct reference to the temple in these inscriptions, it is possible that the inscription and the temple were contemporaneous. The construction of temples continued during the Bahmani period, as seen in the Mahādeva temple at Pargaon Salu-Malu. The sculpture art and its subject matter prevalent in the 13th century also continued in the 14th century.

An inscription belonging to the period of Muhammad bin Tughlaq found in the premises of the Mahādeva temple is historically significant as it was engraved when Devagiri was India's capital. This inscription shows how Tughlaq tried to strengthen his grip on the administration. Linguistically, the influence of Persian words is not seen in this inscription. Most words are from the Marathi language, which was prevalent earlier. The innovative use of the suffix 'Deva' after the name Muhammad and the inclusion of traditional terms like paravaḍī, strava, and nāyaka further emphasize the co-existence of multiple traditions and languages during this complex period.